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摘要：With internationalization and globalization, English has proliferated in urban spaces around the world. This creates new opportunities for EFL learning and teaching. An English literacy walk is one activity that can be used productively to capitalize on this potential. The activity has roots in long-established approaches to emergent literacy education for young children and pedagogic projects inspired by recent research on linguistic landscapes. Drawing on these traditions, teachers can target reading outcomes involving code, semantic, pragmatic, and critical knowledge and skills. We use the four resources model of literate practices to systematically map some of the potential of literacy walks in multilingual, multimodal linguistic landscapes. We suggest tasks and teacher questions that might be used for the explicit teaching of reading during and after literacy walks. Although grounded in Taipei, our ideas might be of interest to EFL teachers in other globalized cities around the world. Adapted from the source document

摘要：The term 'authenticity' has been variously interpreted by second language acquisition and ESL scholars. It has been taken to refer to the materials used in class, such as texts, but also to the type of tasks the students are assigned, or even to the type of classroom interaction. Our contribution is concerned with the first of these interpretations. We focus on the authenticity of what are purported to be 'real' texts included in textbooks for advanced students of English at B2 and C1 levels, according to the Common European Framework of Reference. This empirical study is based on a series of parameters that have been established in order to examine the extent to which the authenticity of real texts has been preserved and to establish other related changes that such texts are subjected to when included in textbooks. Adapted from the source document

摘要：In order to explore student learning experiences in English language classes, this study employed a qualitative data collection method known as narrative frames, which uses prompts to stimulate written expression of ideas. Data were collected through narrative frames on three different occasions from 36 second-year high school students in a team-taught EFL classroom in Japan, in both English and Japanese. After collecting the frames, individual interviews were conducted with two students from the class and their team teachers to further enquire about their experience, particularly with regard to the use of narrative frames. Findings suggest that the narrative frame technique proved to be a beneficial tool for improving learner autonomy. It facilitated the students becoming responsible for their learning in general, and encouraged them to become more serious about their learning of the English language. Methodological implications for the future use of narrative frames are provided. Adapted from the source document

摘要：Concerns over the quality of peer feedback and entrenched teacher-driven learning have resulted in the limited use of peer assessment in Chinese EFL writing instruction. This study sought to effectively implement peer assessment for EFL writing in China, by addressing learners' concerns through tailor-made teacher intervention strategies. Eighteen English majors participated in peer assessment for nine writing tasks. Pre-intervention surveys elicited learners' concerns over peer assessment, leading to the design of teacher-led support strategies. Post-task surveys examined learners' satisfaction with teacher-supported peer assessment, and were supplemented by the assignment feedback data. The results show that a dynamic and continuous teacher support approach to peer assessment was reported which proved to substantially affect learners' perceptions, and the nature and the perceived value of peer assessment respectively. This paper provides implications for EFL writing teachers regarding pedagogic motivation and strategies for the effective use of peer assessment. Adapted from the source document

摘要：This study investigates the effects of Acoustic Spectrographic Instruction on the production of the English phonological contrast /i/ and / I /. Acoustic Spectrographic Instruction is based on the assumption that physical representations of speech sounds and spectrography allow learners to objectively see and modify those non-accurate features in their oral production which may impede effective communication in the target language. Twenty-six pre-service non-native English teachers, 16 in the experimental group and 10 in the control group, participated in the investigation. During a two-week period, the experimental group received Acoustic Spectrographic Instruction while the control group was exposed to a more traditional pronunciation approach. Production accuracy of the target segments was evaluated by two production tasks and a perceptual identification task. Acoustic measurements from the production tasks show that Acoustic Spectrographic Instruction significantly improved pronunciation of both vowels. Data from perceptual identification also indicate pronunciation improvement of both vowels, particularly for English / I /. Taken together, the results of these three experiments lend support to the use of acoustic features of speech and spectrography in English segmental acquisition. Adapted from the source document

摘要：This study examines the effects of interactive versus simultaneous display of visual and verbal multimedia information on incidental vocabulary learning and reading comprehension of learners of English with lower proficiency levels. In the interactive display condition, learners were allowed to select the type of multimedia information whereas the simultaneous display condition presented the verbal (definitions) and visual (associated pictures) information in a single gloss. Eighty-two students were randomly assigned to the treatment conditions and were asked to read an annotated expository text. Reading comprehension was measured through a recall protocol and a multiple-choice test. Incidental vocabulary learning was measured through unannounced vocabulary tests of form recognition, meaning production, definition match, and bilingual synonym match. T-tests and ANOVA analyses indicated that the participants utilized glosses less frequently when they were given the control over access to the type of multimedia information. In addition, simultaneous display of multimedia information led to better performance on reading and vocabulary tests. The results are in line with the contiguity principle of Generative Theory of Multimedia Learning, which posits that presenting verbal and visual information simultaneously reduces cognitive load and results in better learning. The findings have implications for both the development of multimedia materials for L2 learners and training of learners to interact with multimedia materials. Adapted from the source document

摘要：The assignment of grammatical functions has been a key feature of hierarchical (serial) models of speech production since their inception in the 1970s. This article argues that grammatical function assignment is neither sufficient nor necessary in such models. It reports a study of the effects of the conceptual accessibility of referents on the selection of English dative syntactic frames in production and shows that the effects relate to linear precedence rather than grammatical function assignment. A secondary topic addressed in the same study is whether second language speakers of English have difficulty integrating syntactic knowledge where it interfaces with conceptual accessibility in speech production. Findings suggest that advanced proficiency speakers do not and are qualitatively similar to native speakers. The implications of this for the interface hypothesis about second language acquisition are discussed. Adapted from the source document

摘要：This study examines vocabulary growth rates in first and second languages for Spanish-speaking and Cantonese-speaking English language learners from kindergarten through second grade. Growth-modeling results show a within-language effect of concepts about print on vocabulary. Language exposure also had an effect on English vocabulary: earlier English exposure led to larger English vocabulary in kindergarten. There was no interference of early English exposure on native-language vocabulary. Moreover, Cantonese-speaking children had higher English expressive vocabulary scores than Spanish-speaking children and this difference remained for the 3 years. In contrast, although there were no significant differences in first language vocabulary at the start of kindergarten, Spanish-speaking children had steeper growth rates in first-language vocabulary than Cantonese-speaking children, after controlling for language of instruction and first-language concepts about print. Adapted from the source document

摘要：Recent studies in linguistics have shown that metaphor is ubiquitous. This has important consequences for language learners who need to use it appropriately in their speech and writing. This study aims to provide a preliminary measure of the amount and distribution of metaphor used by language learners in their writing across Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) levels. Two hundred essays written by Greek- and German-speaking learners of English are examined for their use of metaphor. The findings are that the overall density of metaphor increases from CEFR levels A2 to C2. At lower levels, most of the metaphoric items are closed-class, consisting mainly of prepositions, but at B2 level and beyond, the majority of metaphoric items are open-class. Metaphor is used to perform increasingly sophisticated functions at each of the levels. At B2 level, significantly more errors start to be perceived in the metaphorically used words, and there is more evidence of L1 influence. Descriptors are provided for CEFR levels A2-C2 regarding the use of metaphor. Adapted from the source document

摘要：This longitudinal case study follows a dynamic systems approach to investigate an under-studied research area in second language acquisition, the development of complexity and accuracy for an advanced untutored learner of English. Using the analytical tools of dynamic systems theory (Verspoor et al. 2011) within the framework of complexity, accuracy, and fluency (Skehan 1998; Norris and Ortega 2009), the study tracks accuracy, syntactic complexity, and lexical diversity in the speech of a Turkish immigrant over one year. Results from these oral interviews show that most development occurred in the participant's lexical diversity, syntactic complexity showed potential but unverifiable gains, and accuracy showed no development. These findings suggest that an untutored language learner may develop advanced lexical and syntactic skills, but achieving grammatical accuracy without instruction may be more difficult. Overall, dynamic systems theory seems to provide a suitable framework for examining the linguistic development of advanced naturalistic learners, with important implications for future research involving untutored immigrant and refugee populations of English language learners. Adapted from the source document

摘要：This study investigated the immediate and long-term effects of explicit and implicit classroom interventions on L2 pragmatics. The linguistic focus of the interventions was epistemic stance, which has rarely been studied in research on instructed SLA within the field of interlanguage pragmatics. Eighty-one learners of English at a Japanese university were divided into explicit (n = 37) and implicit (n = 44) groups for 3 hours of instruction. Written production data were collected before the interventions, immediately after them, and five months later. Learners' use of epistemic stance forms was analysed by using: (i) a measure of individual use of epistemic stance forms; and (ii) learner corpus analysis. The explicit intervention was found to be considerably more effective than the implicit intervention in both the short- and long-term for most of the targeted forms. However, in cases when learners lacked a form for a specific function before the intervention, both types of instruction appeared to be equally effective. While this research generally provides strong support for explicit instruction, the potential of implicit interventions for certain forms needs further investigation. Adapted from the source document

摘要：To contribute to a range of issues surrounding the dynamic and interactive nature of language classroom talk-in-interaction, this study examines dynamic origins and functions of multiple responses to teachers initiations, which can be considered as an intrinsic type of pedagogical interaction in ESL and EFL classroom talk, and probes how such classroom interaction provides an opportunity for learners to share participation and collaboratively achieve a local learning objective. To interpret and analyse the multiple response appropriately, this study uses tools of conversation analysis. Adapted from the source document

摘要：Numerous scholars (e.g. Crystal 2003; Widdowson 2003) have argued that English belongs to nonnative speakers because English is widely used as an international language and because there are more nonnative speakers than native speakers. Many nonnative teachers in the Expanding Circle accept this argument, believing that having the ownership of English empowers them. This forum piece, however, argues that the issue of English ownership is not as relevant for them as it is for those living in the Outer Circle because there may not exist a local variety of English in their respective country. Moreover, claiming the ownership of English can bring about detrimental effects in their classroom, especially when only 'good English' is accepted as 'a powerful symbolic resource' (Park 2010: 193), as is the case in Korea. This article also argues that the real source of nonnative teachers' empowerment stems from their identity as the ideal teachers of English to English as a Foreign Language learners. Adapted from the source document

摘要：This longitudinal study investigates the development of writing proficiency in English as a foreign language (EFL), in contrast to the development of first language (L1) writing proficiency in Dutch L1, in a sample of almost 400 secondary school students in the Netherlands. Students performed several writing tasks in both languages in three consecutive years. Furthermore, data were collected about students' metacognitive and linguistic knowledge (grammar, vocabulary, and spelling) and their fluency in lexical retrieval and sentence building (reaction times). Analyses, using structural equation modeling, show that EFL writing was more strongly correlated to linguistic knowledge and linguistic fluency than L1 writing was and that, over the course of the two years investigated, students' EFL writing proficiency improved to a greater extent than did their L1 writing proficiency. Furthermore, through the modeling of L1 and EFL writing proficiency, a strong relation between the two constructs could be established, with metacognitive knowledge and general fluency mediating this relation. This finding is paralleled by the study of Van Gelderen, Schoonen, Stoel, De Glopper, and Hulstijn (2007) showing a strong relationship between L1 and EFL reading proficiency. Taken together, the findings of these studies call for the inclusion of the constructs of L1 proficiency, linguistic fluency (speed of processing of lexical and grammatical information), and language-general metacognition in theories of the acquisition of L2 proficiency.

摘要：We report a classroom experiment directed at increasing lexical fluency in writing. Participants were 107 Dutch students in bilingual (EFL) education (Grades 10 and 11). According to current theories of writing such fluency allows writers to devote more attention to higher order aspects of text production, such as idea generation, selection and organization, and revision of content. Two contrasting assumptions are studied: the inhibition assumption that effortful word production prevents writers from attending to higher order aspects and the compensation assumption that writers compensate for effortful word production processes by sequential processing strategies. Results show that a group trained in writingandfluency in the deployment of useful words for writing in specific tasks outperformed a group receiving the same writing lessons butwithoutfluency training both in fluency of trained words and in frequency of use of the target words in writing. However, the lexical fluency group did not produce foreign language texts of better quality than the group that received no fluency training. Both groups, however, outperformed a baseline control group that had not received writing lessons. The results are interpreted as support for the compensation assumption.

摘要：We assessed the language, cognitive, and socioemotional abilities of 27 internationally adopted children from China, adopted by French-speaking parents, 12 of whom had been assessed previously by Gauthier and Genesee. The children were on average 7 years, 10 months old and were matched to nonadopted monolingual French-speaking children on age, gender, and socioeconomic status. Although there were no significant differences between the groups with respect to socioemotional and cognitive development, the adoptees scored significantly lower than the controls on measures of receptive grammar, expressive vocabulary, word definitions, and sentence recall, findings that were similar to those reported by Gauthier and Genesee. Analyses of correlations between the adopted children's language test results and their age at adoption, length of exposure to the adoption language, health, and other developmental problems revealed relatively few significant associations. In contrast, analyses of the relationship between their language test scores and their performance on the recalling sentences subtest suggest a link between performance on these two tests. We speculate on the role that performance on sentence recall might play in mediating differences in language outcomes between the two groups of children.

摘要：This paper investigates how learners interpret definite plural noun phrases (e.g., the tigers) and bare (article-less) plural noun phrases (e.g., tigers) in their second language. Whereas Spanish allows definite plurals to have both generic and specific readings, English requires definite plurals to have specific, nongeneric readings. Generic readings in English are expressed with bare plurals, which are ungrammatical in Spanish in preverbal subject position. Two studies were conducted in order to investigate the role of first language transfer in this domain in both English --> Spanish and Spanish --> English directions. Study 1 used a meaning-focused task to probe learners' interpretation of definite plural noun phrases, whereas Study 2 used a form-focused task to examine learners' judgments of the acceptability of definite and bare plurals in generic versus specific contexts. First language transfer was attested in both directions, at lower proficiency levels, whereas more targetlike performance was attested at higher proficiency levels. Furthermore, learners were found to be more successful in learning about the (un)grammaticality of bare plurals in the target language than in assigning the target interpretation to definite versus bare plurals. This finding is shown to be consistent with other studies' findings of plural noun phrase interpretation in monolingual and bilingual children.

摘要：Movement appears to be specific to natural-language grammars. Thus, processing moments that reflect the computations of traces -- specifically intermediate traces left by cyclic movement -- signal a parsing mechanism specialized for language. Likewise, constraints on binding in English are unlike binding in formal systems: They seem to reflect computations in a specialized grammatical organization. Hence, binding-theoretic computations mediated by cyclic movement chains in the resolution of anaphors and pronouns during processing can be seen as privileged signatures of this grammatical architecture. Adult second language (L2) learners produced reading time asymmetries that reflect binding-theoretic constraints on the logical form reconstructions of anaphors and pronouns along movement chains in real time. These suggest that the processing of English as a L2 is structurally driven. Adapted from the source document

摘要：Building on the cognitive and interactive perspectives of task research, the cognition hypothesis states that increasing task complexity promotes greater interaction and feedback and thus facilitates second language (L2) development (Robinson, 2001b, 2007a). To date, very little research has explored this claim during learner-learner interactions in English as a foreign language (EFL) classroom contexts in which a task-based syllabus is implemented. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of task complexity on the occurrence of interaction-driven learning opportunities and question development in such a classroom context. Korean university students (N = 191) from four intact English classes were randomly assigned to one comparison group and three experimental groups with various task-complexity levels (i.e., simple, + complex, and + + complex) based on Robinson's framework. Their interactions were audiorecorded, and occurrences of learning opportunities, operationalized as language-related episodes (LREs), were identified. Question development was identified between pretest and posttests on the basis of the learners' stage advancement using Pienemann and Johnston's (1987) developmental sequence. Results indicated that more complex tasks promoted a greater number of LREs and particularly led to LREs targeting developmentally advanced question structures, which result in question development. Adapted from the source document

摘要：Using structural equation modeling analysis, this study examined the contribution of vocabulary and grammatical knowledge to second language reading comprehension among 190 advanced Chinese English as a foreign language learners. Vocabulary knowledge was measured in both breadth (Vocabulary Levels Test) and depth (Word Associates Test); grammatical measures focused on learners' implicit (timed grammaticality judgment task), as well as explicit knowledge (grammatical error correction task); reading comprehension had three indicators, namely, co-reference, textual inference, and gist. Vocabulary knowledge related significantly to reading comprehension; grammatical knowledge showed a weak contribution to reading comprehension after controlling for the effect of vocabulary knowledge. In addition, learners' implicit knowledge of grammar had a stronger relationship to reading comprehension than explicit knowledge, over and above the effect of vocabulary size. Adapted from the source document